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[[Hohokam]] is one of the four major prehistoric archaeological traditions of the present-day American Southwest.<ref name="mark">Chenault, Mark, Rick Ahlstrom, and Tom Motsinger, (1993) ''In the Shadow of South Mountain: The Pre-Classic Hohokam of 'La Ciudad de los Hornos','' Part I and II.</ref> Living as simple farmers, they raised corn and beans. The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle [[Gila River]]. The communities were located near good arable land, with dry farming common in the earlier years of this period.<ref name="mark"/> [[Water well|Wells]], usually less than {{convert|10|ft|m|0}} deep, were dug for domestic water supplies by 300 CE to 500 CE.<ref name="mark"/> Early Hohokam homes were constructed of branches bent in a semi-circular fashion and then covered with twigs, reeds and heavily applied mud and other materials at hand.<ref name="mark"/>
 
Although not as technologically advanced as the [[Mesoamerican]] civilizations further south, sophisticated pre-Columbian sedentary societies evolved in North America. The [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] is the name archeologists have given to the regional stylistic similarity of [[artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], [[iconography]], [[ceremony|ceremonies]] and [[mythology]] of the [[Mississippian culture]], which coincided with the people's adoption of [[maize]] agriculture and [[chiefdom]]-level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.siu.edu/~anthro/muller/SECC/sld008.htm| title=Connections|author muller}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Townsend|first = Richard F., and Robert V. Sharp, eds.| title = Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand| publisher = [[The Art Institute of Chicago and Yale University Press]]|year = 2004| isbn = 0300106017}}</ref> Contrary to popular belief, this development appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]]. It developed independently, with sophistication based on the accumulation of maize surpluses, more dense population and specialization of skills.{{Dubious|date=September 2009}}<!-- area of academic controversy? --> This Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the [[religion]] of the Mississippian peoples, and is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.<ref>{{Cite book| editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms| publisher = [[University of Texas Press]]|year = 2007| isbn = 9780292713475}}</ref>
 
The Mississippian culture created the largest [[earthworks (archaeology)|earthworks]] in North America north of Mexico, most notably at [[Cahokia]], based on a tributary of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois. Its 10-story [[Monks Mound]] has a larger circumference than the [[Pyramid of the Sun]] at [[Teotihuacan]] or the [[Great Pyramid]] of [[Egypt]]. The six-square mile city complex was based on the people's cosmology and had more than 100 mounds, oriented to their sophisticated knowledge of [[astronomy]]. It included a [[Woodhenge]], whose sacred [[Thuja|cedar]] poles were placed to mark the summer and winter solstices and fall and spring equinoxes. Its peak population in 1250 AD of 30,000–40,000 people was not equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800. In addition, Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms ranging from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.
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====Impact on Native populations====
From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: [[pandemic|epidemic diseases]] brought from Europe; [[genocide]] and warfare <ref>{{cite web|author=Latest activity 50 minutes ago |url=http://www.amazon.com/dp/0375503749 |title='&#39;The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During the American-Indian War'&#39; |publisher=Amazon.com |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> at the hands of European explorers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; [[endemic warfare|internal warfare]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nativeamericans.com/Huron.htm |title=Native Americans – Huron Tribe |publisher=Nativeamericans.com |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> [[enslavement]]; and a high rate of [[Interracial marriage|intermarriage]].<ref name="accessgenealogy1">[http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/history/indianblood.htm "Indian Mixed-Blood"], Frederick W. Hodge, ''Handbook of American Indians'', 1906</ref><ref name="uwec1">[http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20080224114408/http://www.uwec.edu/freitard/GroupAndMinority/Albuquerque/History/albuquerqueHistory.htm A Brief History of Albuquerque]</ref> Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, [[List of epidemics|epidemic]] [[infectious disease|disease]] was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/smallpox_01.shtml |title=Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2009-11-05 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libby-genealogy.com/epidemics.htm |title=Epidemics |publisher=Libby-genealogy.com |date=2009-04-30 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html |title=The Story Of... Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs |publisher=Pbs.org |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> With the rapid declines of some populations and continuing rivalries among their own nations, Native Americans sometimes re-organized to form new cultural groups, such as the [[Seminoles]] of Florida and [[Mission Indians]] of [[Alta California]].
 
The lack of hard evidence or written records has made estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers the subject of much debate. A low estimate arriving at around 1 million was first posited by anthropologist [[James Mooney]] in the 1890s, computing population density of each culture area based on its [[carrying capacity]].
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{{cite web
|url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/gwproc13.asp
|title = By the President of the United States of America. A proclamation.
|accessdate = 2010-08-11
|publisher = Yale Law School
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{{cite web
|url = http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090105132255/http://www.enotes.com/famous-quotes/what-a-prodigious-growth-this-english-race
|title = Hayes Quotes: What a prodigious growth this English race, ...
|accessdate = 2008-09-04
|author = Rutherford Birchard Hayes
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{{details|Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[File:Neighbor-joining Tree.svg|thumb|left|300px|A genetic tree of 18 world human groups by a [[neighbour-joining]] autosomal relationships.|alt=A map with five colored squares, depicting the genetic split between 18 different human groups of the world.]]
[[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] primarily focus on [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] and [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups]]. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the [[patrilineal]] line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the [[matrilineal]] line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither [[Genetic recombination|recombines]], and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.<ref name=nomenclature>{{cite journal|year=2002|title=A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups|pages= 339–348 |volume=12|issue=2|doi=10.1101/gr.217602}} [http://genome.cshlp.org/content/12/2/339/F1.large.jpg (Detailed hierarchical chart)]</ref> [[Autosome|Autosomal]] "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.<ref name=Griffiths/> AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry [[genetic admixture]] in the entire [[human genome]] and related [[Population bottleneck|isolated populations]].<ref name=Griffiths>{{Cite book| last=Griffiths|first=Anthony J. F.|title=An Introduction to genetic analysis|year=1999|publisher=W.H. Freeman|location=New York |isbn=071673771X|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=autosome&rid=iga.section.222|accessdate=2010-02-03}}</ref>
 
The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the [[Americas]], and secondly with [[European colonization of the Americas]].<ref name=SpencerWells2>{{Cite book|first1=Spencer |last1=Wells |first2=Mark |last2=Read |title=The Journey of Man&nbsp;— A Genetic Odyssey|url=http://books.google.com/?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&lpg=PP1|format=Digitised online by Google books|publisher=Random House|isbn= 0812971469|accessdate=2009-11-21|year=2002}}</ref><ref name=Genebase>{{cite web|title=Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Genebase Tutorials |first=Wendy Tymchuk Senior Technical Editor |url=http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16|format=Verbal tutorial possible |publisher=Genebase Systems |year=2008|accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Orgel L |title=Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world|url=http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.pdf |journal=Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=99–123 |pmid=15217990|doi = 10.1080/10409230490460765|format=PDF |year=2004|accessdate=2010-01-19}}</ref> The former is the determinant factor for the number of [[gene]] lineages, [[zygosity]] mutations and founding [[haplotype]]s present in today's Indigenous Amerindian [[Population history of American indigenous peoples|populations]].<ref name=Genebase/>
 
Human settlement of the [[New World]] occurred in stages from the [[Bering Sea|Bering sea coast line]], with an initial 15, 000 to 20,000-year layover on [[Beringia]] for the small [[Founder effect|founding population]].<ref name=SpencerWells2/><ref name=First>{{Cite document |title = First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover&nbsp;— Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News |url =http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html |accessdate = 2009-11-18 |publisher = [[Discovery Channel]]}} [http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american-02.html page 2]</ref><ref name=first2>{{cite web|title=New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop|first=Ker |last=Than|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/02/080214-america-layover.html|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=2008|accessdate=2010-01-23}}</ref> The [[Microsatellite (genetics)|micro-satellite]] diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to [[South America]] indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.<ref name=subclades>{{cite web|title=Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q|url=http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1|publisher= Genebase Systems|year=2009|accessdate=2009-11-22}}</ref> The [[Na-Dené]], [[Inuit]] and [[Alaska Natives|Indigenous Alaskan]] populations exhibit [[haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)]] mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.<ref name=NaDene>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 |author=Ruhlen M |title=The origin of the Na-Dene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13994–6 |year=1998 |pmid=9811914 |pmc=25007 }}</ref><ref name=Zhivotovsky>{{Cite journal|author=Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF |title=High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=164–75 |year=2004 |pmid=14595095 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msh009}}</ref><ref name=inuit>{{cite journal|title=mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion|author=Juliette Saillard, Peter Forster, Niels Lynnerup1, Hans-Jürgen Bandelt and Søren Nørby|year=2000|doi=10.1086/303038}}</ref> This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of [[North America]] and [[Greenland]] derived from later migrant populations.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The peopling of the New World&nbsp;— Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology|journal=
Annual Review of Anthropology|year=2004|pages 551–583|volume=33|doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932}}</ref><ref name=Nadene1>{{cite journal|title=Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations|author=A. Torroni ''et al.''|volume=130|pages= 153–162|pmid=1346260}}</ref>
 
==See also==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"